Mild to moderate astrogliosis
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• Hypertrophy of cell body
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• Structural elements: GFAP, nestin, vimentin
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• Inflammatory cell regulators: cytokines, growth factors, glutathione
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• Astrocytes processes are are numerous and thicker
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• Transcriptional regulators: STAT3, NFκB, Rheb-m TOR, cAMP, Olig2, SOX9 [61–65].
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• Transporters and pumps: AQP4 and Na+/K+ transporters [61, 66–69]
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• Glutamate transporter [70–73]
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• The non-overlapping domains of individual astrocytes are preserved
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• Vascular regulators: PGE, NO [74, 75]
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• Energy provision: lactate [76]
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• Molecules implicated in synapse formation and
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Severe astrogliosis and glial scar
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• Intense hypertrophy of cell body
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• Remodeling: thrombospondin and Complement C1q [77, 78]
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• Significant extension of processes
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• Molecules implicated in oxidative stress and providing protection from oxidative stress: NO, NOS, SOD, Glutathione [67, 68, 79]
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• Proliferation
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• Overlapping of individual domains
| | |
• Substantial reorganization of tissue architecture [60]
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